Why L.A. Used as Setting for Most Disaster Movies.

HENOS WOLDE Instructor: STARR GOODE English 1 Essay 3 10/29/2012 Why L. A. used as setting for most disaster movies. Through decades of disaster films, Los Angeles has been targeted by aliens, toppled by temblors, sunken by tsunamis, leveled by lava, and a rogue tornado once took out the Hollywood sign. Even though in real life los angels is not such a disastrous it nonetheless faces constant destruction in movies, on television, and in books; in the collective imagination, the city burns and burns.Los angels is used as a setting for most disastrous movies because the city is home to Hollywood and the movie business, so the artists who write about, direct and execute mass destruction in Los Angeles are often intimately familiar with the territory and find it convenient to destroy los angels in their films. Los Angeles is a popular disaster movie locale because it is home of the entertainment capital of the world Hollywood, its famous landmarks, and its geography. Los Angeles is home to the entertainment capital of the world Hollywood, which explains why L. A. is often used as a setting for most disaster movies.To destroy a big city in movies takes a lot of time and work. It would make it even harder to travel far away to shoot these movies. To make the destruction look realistic, Hollywood movie makers have to work extra hard and film non stop making sure they get every little detail right. It would make it very challenging to film these movies far away from the studio. For these reason Hollywood apparently wants to destroy all of Los Angeles. For example, the city is going down in flames in DEMOLITION MAN, turned into an island in ESCAPE FROM L. A. , and obliterated in THE BIG ONE: THE GREAT LOS ANGELES EARTHQUAKE.Perhaps Hollywood has no particular malice toward Los Angeles but simply destroys it cinematically because â€Å"it’s there,† at hand, nearby, easy to drive to and blow up, burn down, and shake apart while the cameras roll. With these d isaster movies Hollywood has perfected the cinema of conspicuous destruction, certainly a defining aspect of American movie technology. Los Angeles is also a city filled with internationally recognized landmarks. The Hollywood sign, the Capitol Records building, City Hall and the skyscrapers of down town makes the movies convenient for cinematic shorthand.Almost everybody recognizes these landmarks and when they see it being destroyed in movies, it allows the scale of the disaster to strike the audience greatly. By far, L. A. ‘s biggest cinematic target is the famous nine-letter landmark perched in the Hollywood hills. When people see the Hollywood sign being destroyed by natural disaster or alien attack, the idea behind it is to exaggerates the power of the destruction and to shock viewers with a realistic image of these familiar monument’s falling apart. Apart from its landmarks, L. A. s a popular disaster-movie locale because of its geography. Sitting in a seismic zo ne on the western edge of the continent, it is surrounded by beaches, mountains and deserts. In real life, the city is subject to floods, fires, earthquakes and big waves, so seeing freeways collapse or Santa Monica swallowed up by the sea isn't such a stretch. Hollywood takes great advantage of these landmarks to destroy Los Angeles. Some People also love watching Los Angeles get destroyed because they believe It's nice to mess up the great weather and see it being destroyed by natural disasters.But regardless of the on screen devastation, Fire, earthquakes, floods, volcanos, and a few alien invasions have destroyed the City of Los Angeles. Even though 1000's of disastrous movies have been made in the City, these movies have made the City a Famous landmark. Ultimately, heaving destruction on Los Angeles also shows Hollywood's sense of humor and optimism. It's an odd kind of Western optimism where Los Angeles always seems to start over again, like a phoenix rising from its own destr uction.Los angeles also makes it easier for Hollywood actors to destroy it because of its geography and world wide recognized landmarks. L. A. is good at playing itself in film. It's a familiar face and it is always expected to get blown up and somehow miraculously reappear in the next summer blockbuster. Interestingly, there are always a few survivors in these films, along with a message of hope. Even thought Los Angeles is used as a setting of disaster in most of its movies, there's always hope for change and resurrection as well.

Comparison of Healthcare Policies between France and the US

Introduction This essay aims to critically discuss social policies on healthcare between France and the US. Similarities and differences on the social policies of these two countries will be discussed. The first part of this essay aims to explore how public funding for healthcare services in both countries address health inequalities. A critical discussion on healthcare services available in both countries and the extent to which universal access to healthcare services is practiced shall also be made. The second part presents the challenges that both countries face in addressing healthcare issues. Healthcare policies that address these issues will also be critically appraised. The third part provides an analysis on whether France and USA are ‘converging’ or following ‘path dependence’ on their healthcare policies. A brief conclusion summarising key points raised in this essay will be presented in the end. Healthcare Services and Public Spending for Healthcare The healthcare system in France is described as a mix of private and public insurers and providers (Cases, 2006). This means that almost the whole population is covered by public insurance, which in turn are funded by employers and employees. In addition to public health insurance, a minority also purchases private insurance to complement existing public health insurances. Private providers support outpatient care while public providers provide inpatient care in hospital settings (Cases, 2006). France enjoys relatively good health compared to the US. The Organisation for Co-operation and Development (OECD, 2013) Health Statistics in 2013 reveals that life expectancy in France is high at 82.2 and is currently ranked third amongst OECD countries. In contrast, life expectancy in the US is amongst the lowest at 78.7 (OECD, 2013). The difference in life expectancy in both countries is a cause of concern since the US has one of the most expensive healthcare systems in the OECD and yet fares worse in health outcomes, including life expectancy(Baldock, 2011). The OECD (2013) notes that compared to France and other large OECD countries, the US spends twice as much per individual on healthcare. Interestingly, public health expenditure for health is highest in the US compared to all OECD countries. However, it does not practice universal healthcare coverage with the public supporting only 32% of the total healthcare cost (OECD, 2011). Individuals eligible for Medicaid include the elderly, families with small children and those with disabilities (Rosenbaum, 2011). Approximately 53% of the US population is covered through the Patient Protection and Affordable Act or Obamacare (Rosenbaum, 2011). Under this Act, employers are required to purchase health insurances for their employees. Only a small portion of businesses pays for full coverage with majority requiring their employees to share in the cost of their health insurances (Rosenbaum, 2011). The OECD (2009a) states that 46 million people in the US are left without public or private health insurance. This could place a significant burden to the US healthcare system that is struggling in providing equitable access to healthcare services in the country. The World Health Organization (2014) explains that equitable access is achieved when individuals, regardless of their socioeconomic status, enjoy the same type and quality of healthcare. This is not achieved in the US where statistics (OECD, 2009a) continues to show that high-income groups enjoy better health and appropriately covered by healthcare insurances while those in the lower socioeconomic status continue to have poorer health status. This disparity in health status and healthcare insurance coverage continues to be a challenge in the US. Public spending per capita in the US continues to be the highest in the OECD countries even with the increased participation of the private sector in financing healthcare in the country (OECD, 2013). In recent years, the OECD (2013) observes that public spending across OECD countries continue to decline. On average, healthcare spending of these countries only grew by 0.2% in the last 4 years. While there is a variation on the decrease of public spending, the major reason for the slowdown is due to drastic cuts in health expenditures. In France, the Statutory Health Insurance (SHI) currently covers almost all residents. Until 2000, SHI covered 100% of all residents (Franc and Polton, 2006). Today, almost all of the residents are still covered under SHI. However, a few have purchased private health insurances to complement SHI. Public spending for healthcare is 77.9% while France spends 11.9% of its GDP in healthcare (OECD, 2011). This is in contrast with the US where public spending for healthcare accounts to only 47.7% but spends 17.9% of its GDP on healthcare (OECD, 2011). Interestingly, SHI covers both legal and illegal residents in France. This is opposite in the US where illegal residents are not covered by publicly funded healthcare insurance. There are approximately 21 million immigrants in the US with most having an illegal resident status (Moody, 2011). Health coverage remains to be a concern for this group since they work on jobs that pay very low wages and with no healthcare coverage. Hence, this group is three times more likely to have no healthcare coverage (Stanton, 2006). Currently, this group comprises 20% of the total uninsured population in the US (Moo dy, 2011). The lack of universal coverage in the US suggests that healthcare policies in the US may not be inclusive as opposed to France where almost all residents have private or public health insurance coverage. Rosenbaum (2011) explains that the Patient Protection and Affordable Act or Obamacare is expected to boost healthcare coverage for legal immigrants who are in low paying jobs. However, only legal immigrants who have been in the US for at least five years could qualify for Medicaid or purchase state-based health insurances. Currently, all states in the US have expanded Medicaid coverage to low-income groups. Specifically, a family of four with a combined annual income of $33,000.00 and an individual with $15,800.00 yearly income are now eligible for Medicaid. This legislation provides health coverage to approximately 57% of the uninsured population in the US (CDC, 2011). For legal immigrants who have not reached five years of stay in the US or are earning more than the Medicaid limit are allowed federal subsidy when purchasing state-based health insurances (CDC, 2011). As opposed to France where illegal immigrants enjoy the same healthcare coverage as legal immigrants and citizens, those in the US on illegal status remain uninsured and could not purchase state-based health insurances (CDC, 2011). Healthcare access for this group is limited to community health centres across the country. It is noteworthy that only 8,500 community health centres are in existence today and yet they cater to at least 22 million people each year (CDC, 2011). Almost half of those who access primary health centres are the uninsured. While hospitals are required by law to provide emergency care for all individuals regardless of their resident status, those who are uninsured do not have health coverage to sustain their long-term healthcare needs (Rosenbaum, 2011). Current healthcare policies in the US might actually promote health inequality since it only provides primary basic healthcare services (CDC, 2011) to the marginalised group, which may include low-income and ethni c groups. In France, The Bismarckian approach to healthcare has been used for several decades but in recent years, there is now an adoption of the Beveridge approach (Chevreul et al., 2010). In the former, health coverage tends to be uniform and concentrated while in the latter, the single public payer model is promoted. In the Bismarckian approach, everyone should be given the same access to healthcare services while the Beveridge model allows for stronger state intervention (Chevreul et al., 2010). This also suggests that tax-based revenues are used to finance healthcare. The mix of both models is necessary to respond to the increasing demands for healthcare in the country and to regulate the increasing cost of healthcare. Chevreul et al. (2010) emphasise that the SHI is now experiencing deficit due to increasing rise of healthcare expenditure in the country. The French parliament, through the Ministry of Health regulates expenditure by enacting laws and regulations. Importantly, France regulates prices of specific medical procedures and drugs (Chevreul and Durand-Zaleski, 2009). This development is crucial since failure to regulate prices could further drive up healthcare costs. However, regulation of prices of medical devices remains to be poor. In a survey (OECD, 2009b), expenditures for medical devices is high and amounts to ˆ19 billion annually. Although it comprises 55% of the pharmaceutical market, increased demand for medical devices have also increased SHI expenditures on these devices (Cases and Le Fur, 2008). It should be noted that only 60% of the medical devices are covered by SHI (Cases and Le Fur, 2008). Regulation of the prices of these medical devices is not as strong as the market for drugs and other major medical equipment. This implies that increasing healthcare costs of medical devices could have an impact on publ ic health spending policies in France. Healthcare Issues and Challenges One of the major issues in both countries is the rising healthcare expenditure. As noted by the OECD (2013), there is a disparity between healthcare expenditure and rising healthcare costs in OECD countries. The average increase in healthcare expenditure only amounts to 0.2% and yet healthcare cost continues to rise. In France, this disparity has promoted the Ministry of Health to increase private insurance of its members to help cover healthcare services not normally covered by the SHI. In the US, the debate on Obamacare and the reluctance of the government to cover illegal residents continue to be a challenge in providing equitable healthcare Meanwhile, high costs of medicines could have an impact on healthcare, especially amongst those who are covered by Medicaid and those who could barely afford state-subsidised healthcare insurances (Moody, 2011). This is in contrast to France where cost containment is in place for medicines. To illustrate the lack of healthcare costs regulations, the US spends more on developing medical technologies, which only benefits a few of the patients. The country is also burdened with high administration and pharmaceutical costs. Doctors in the country are also amongst the highest paid in the OECD countries (Greve, 2013). Moody (2011) argues that cost containment remains to be a problem since lowering down prices of medicines or healthcare costs for beneficiaries of Medicaid would lead to doctors’ reluctance to treat Medicaid patients. The lack of priorities in healthcare spending in the US has resulted in higher spending on certain areas and low spending on others. However, this does not translate to better health outcomes for the whole population. Elderly care is one area where there is high spending but the amount of spending does not necessarily translate to better health outcomes. As noted by Haplin et al. (2010), the elderly are more vulnerable to chronic healthcare conditions, such as dementia, cardiovascular diseases, type 2 diabetes. Hence, healthcare costs for this group are relatively higher compared to other members in a community. In a report published by Stanton (2006), approximately 40% of US healthcare expenditure is devoted to elderly care, but this group only comprises 13% of country’s population. It is projected that in the succeeding years, healthcare cost for this group will continue to rise with the ageing of the US population (Stanton, 2006). The same issue is also seen in France, where increasing healthcare cost for the elderly is also expected in the succeeding years (Franc and Polton, 2006). Both countries also lack coordination of care and gatekeeping for the elderly. Although there is an emphasis on elderly care in both countries, lack of continuity of care often leads to poor quality care, duplication of healthcare, waste and over-prescription (Franc and Polton, 2006; Evans and Docteur and Oxley, 2003; Stoddard, 2003). In France, this issue was first addressed through the creation of provider networks and increasing the gate-keeping roles of the general practitioners (GPs). However, the latter was largely unsuccessfully and finally abolished with the introduction of the 2004 Health Insurance Act (Franc and Polton, 2006). In this new legislation, patients have the freedom to choose their own healthcare providers or primary point of contact. Most of the primary points of contact are GPs. This scheme is successful in F rance due to incentives offered to the patients and GPs. This scheme has been suggested to improve the quality of care received by the patients since there is more coordination of care between GPs and specialists (Naiditch and Dourgnon, 2009). This scheme also drives up the cost of visits to specialists and could have influence healthcare financing policies (De Looper and La Fortune, 2009; Naiditch and Dourgnon, 2009). Another issue common to both countries is the competition between hospitals for patients who can afford private healthcare. Consumer demands for healthcare in the US have increased. Hospitals respond by increasing their services to separate them from their competitors (Moody, 2011). For instance, by-products of this competition results to increasing the size of the patient rooms and providing in-house services such as full kitchens, family lounges and business service. All these have not been related to improved health outcomes of the patients. In France, the differences in healthcare costs between publicly funded hospitals and private for-profit hospitals spark a debate on whether common tariffs are the solution to cost containment (Chevreul et al., 2010). Despite the implementation of common tariffs, there is still a growing difference on the healthcare costs between the private and public sectors. Currently, the reform plan Hospital 2007 (Chevreul et al., 2010) states that the obj ective of introducing a common tariff for public and private hospitals has been withheld until 2018. This shows that healthcare policies respond to current trends in health provision in France. ‘Convergence’ and ‘Path Dependence’ Starke et al. (2008) explain that history and institutional context all play a role in influencing healthcare policies in a welfare state. Healthcare policies that tend to be resistant to change illustrate institutionalist or ‘path dependence.’In the event where changes are needed, those that follow ‘path dependence’ change their policies but do so within the boundaries set in the original healthcare policies. On the other hand, healthcare policies that follow the ‘convergence’ pathway or functionalist perspective tend to integrate best practices and are more responsive to social, political and economic changes. Healthcare policies in France and the US tend to follow the ‘convergence’ pathway. The historical context of France reveals that a unitary presidential democracy was established in 1958 (Cases, 2006). In this system, the central government retains sovereignty and policies implemented in local or regional levels are approved by the central government. Despite the practice of central dirigisme, many regions in France have practiced coordination and decenstralisation. Political parties elected to the French government all have a common goal in financing the healthcare system in France. It practices cost-containment by regulating healthcare costs, reducing healthcare demands and restricting healthcare coverage (Chevreul and Durand-Zaleski, 2009). All these cost-containment policies have generally been met with public discontent. In recent years, the introduction of Supplementary Health Insurance enabled the French government to still deliver quality care at reasonable cost. Further, the introduction of direct payment, although reimbursable, also discourages wasteful consumption of healthcare (Chevreul and Durand-Zaleski, 2009). Although changes in healthcare policies tend to be restrictive more than three decades ago, France is now taking the ‘convergence’ pathway in its healthcare system. This suggests that healthcare policies are more responsive to social and economic changes. France also regards its people as equal but retain their freedom to choose a healthcare provider and hospital. The manner of healthcare financing in France allows service users to choose from competing healthcare professionals. Service users could also access specialists due to little gatekeeping in the country (Naiditch and Dourgnon, 2009). All these changes in the France’s healthcare system reflect ‘convergence’ rather than ‘path dependence’. Convergence in healthcare is also shown in both countries through its policies on increasing personal contributions of service users for healthcare (Mossialos and Thomson, 2004). There is also an increasing reliance on private health insurers to bridge the gap in public healthcare delivery. The increasing public-private mix exemplifies convergence. There is also a trend towards community healthcare and decentralisation of healthcare (Baldock, 2011; Chevreul et al., 2010; Blank and Burau, 2007). This trend relies on community healthcare practitioners to provide care in home or community settings. This has been practiced in other developed countries where patients with chronic conditions receive care in their own homes (Chevreau et al., 2010). This approach is also applied when caring for the elderly. Similar to other Welfare states, the US and France are experiencing population ageing. The proportion of the elderly in both countries is expected to rise in the succeeding years (Chevrea u et al., 2010). As mentioned earlier, this translates to increases in health expenditures and cost for this group. Marked increases in health expenditures for this group would mean further reduction on public spending or cost containment. All these could have an impact on public spending in the future and might increase insurance premiums of individuals. There is also the possibility of raising SHI contributions in France or reducing healthcare coverage of Medicaid in the US. Both strategies could fuel public discontent, increase the gap between the rich and the poor and promote health inequalities (OECD, 2008; Starke et al., 2008; Stanton, 2006). Since the main aim of the policies in both countries is to achieve optimal health for all, the realisation of this aim might be compromised with an ageing society. It is also noteworthy that since public funds are bankrolled by taxes, increasing number of elderly could mean reduction in number of employees who are economically productive. This could also lead to lower tax collections and decreased public funding for healthcare. As shown in both countries, healthcare policies are becoming more responsive to the social and economic changes. This does not only suggest a direction towards ‘convergence’ but suggests that this pathway could be the norm for many OECD countries. Conclusion Healthcare policies in the US and France have been influenced by social and economic changes in recent years. Although both aim to achieve universal coverage, it is only France that has achieved this with almost 100% of its citizens covered with healthcare insurance. The US is struggling to meet the healthcare needs of its citizens with almost 46 million still uninsured. Its Obamacare is still met with criticism for its failure to provide public healthcare coverage for most of its citizens. Only the poor and those unable to afford basic healthcare services are covered under Medicaid. In Obamacare, those with marginal incomes could purchase federal-subsidised healthcare insurances. Both countries are also faced with the challenge of an ageing society. The inequitable allocation of healthcare services to this group also promotes social discontent. Almost half of public expenditure is channeled to the elderly, which only comprises 13% of the whole population. The heightened demand for e lderly care, lowered public expenditure on healthcare and increasing healthcare costs have all influenced healthcare policies in the US and France. Finally, the recent changes in the healthcare policies of this country suggest convergence rather than path dependence suggesting that healthcare policies continue to be influenced by social and economic changes in both countries. It is recommended that future research should be done on how ‘convergence’ helps both countries respond to increasing complexities of healthcare in both countries. References: Baldock, J. (2011). Social policy, social welfare and the welfare state. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Blank, R. & Burau, V. (2007). Comparative health policy. London: Palgrave. Cases, C. (2006). ‘French health system reform: recent implementation and future challenge’. Eurohealth, 12, pp. 10-11. Cases, C. & Le Fur, P. (2008). ‘The pharmaceutical file’, Health Policy Monitort, May [Online]. Available from: http://www.hpm.org/survey/fr/all/2 (Accessed: 27th April, 2014). Center for Disease Control and Prevention (2011). NCHS Data Brief: Community Health Centers: Providers, Patients and Content of Care [Online]. Available from: http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/databriefs/db65.htm (Accessed: 27th April, 2014). Chevreul, K., Durand-Zaleski, I., Bahrami, S., Hernandez-Quevedo & Mladovsky, P. (2010). France: Health System Review 2010. France: The European Observatory on Health Systems and Policies, WHO Regional Office for Europe, World Bank, European Commission, UNCAM, London School of Economics and Politic Science, and the London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine. Chevreul, K. & Durand-Zaleski, I. (2009). ‘The role of HTA in coverage and pricing in France: toward a new paradigm?’. Euro Observer, 11, pp. 5-6. De Looper, M. & La Fortune, G. (2009). Measuring disparities in health status and in access and use of healthcare in OECD countries. Paris: OECD (Health working paper 43) [Online]. Available from: http://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/social-issuesmigration-health/measuring-disparities-in-health-status-and-in-access-and-use-of-healthcare-in-oecd-countries_225748084267 (Accessed: 27th April, 2014). Docteur, E. & Oxley, H. (2003). Health-care systems: lessons from the reform experience. Paris: OECD (Health working paper 9) [Online]. Available from: http://www.irdes.fr/Publications/Qes/Qez133.pdf (Accessed: 27th April, 2014). Evans, R. & Stoddard, G. (2003). ‘Consuming research, producing policy?’, American Journal of Public Health, 93, pp. 371-379. Franc, C. & Polton, D. (2006). ‘New governance arrangements for French health insurance’. Eurohealth, 12, pp. 27-29. Glyn, A. (2006). Capitalism unleashed. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Greve, B. (2013). Routledge Handbook of the Welfare State. London: Routledge. Halpin, H., Morales-Suarez-Varela, M. & Martin-Moreno, J. (2010). ‘Chronic disease prevention and the new public health’. Public Health Review, 32, pp. 120-154. Moody, K. (2011). Capitalist care: Will the coalition government’s ‘reforms’ move the NHS further toward a US-style healthcare market?’. Capital and Class, 35(3), pp. 415-434. Mossialos, E. & Thomson, S. (2004). Voluntary health insurance in the European Union. Copenhagen, WHO Regional Office for Europe on behalf of the European Observatory on Health Systems and Policies [Online]. Available from: http://www.euro.who.int/__data/assets/pdf_file/0006/98448/E84885.pdf (Accessed: 27th April, 2014). Naiditch, M. & Dourgnon, P. (2009). The preferred doctor scheme: a political reading of a French experiment of gate-keeping. Paris: IRDES. OECD (2013). Health at a glance 2013: OECD Indicators, Europe: OECD Publishing [Online]. Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/health_glance-2013-3n (Accessed: 27th April, 2014). OECD (2011). Human Development Index and its components. Europe: OECD. OECD (2009a). Society at a Glance 2009: OECD Social Indicators. Europe: OECD. OECD (2009b). Health data 2009. Paris: OECD. OECD (2008). Are we growing unequal[Online]. Available at: www.oecd.org (Accessed: 17th April, 2014). Rosenbaum, S. (2011). ‘The Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act: Implications for Public Health Policy and Practice’. Public Health Reports, 128(1), pp. 130-135. Stanton, M. (2006). The high concentration of U.S. healthcare expenditures: research in action, issues 19. Rockville, MD: Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality. Starke, P., Obginer, H. & Castles, F. (2008). ‘Convergence towards where: in what ways, if any, are welfare states becoming more similar?’. Journal of European Public Policy, 15(7), pp. 975-1000. World Health Organization (WHO) (2014). Health Systems: Equity [Online]. Available at: http://www.who.int/healthsystems/topics/equity/en/ (Accessed: 27th April, 2014).

Nuclear Weapons Persuasive Essay Essay

Should every country have the right to possess nuclear weapons? On the 6th November 1945, a United States bomber flew towards the Japanese city of Hiroshima. The only cargo aboard that B-29 bomber was an atomic bomb – ironically nicknamed â€Å"Little Boy† – that was to be dropped on its target. At 8.15am and at a height of around 2,000ft the bomb exploded above Hiroshima, taking 140,000 lives with it. Most of the 140,000 died instantly, horrifyingly the rest of the innocent civilians that were not in direct contact with the bomb died painful deaths in the four months following. They died from radiation sickness and different types of cancers. Whilst the atomic bomb is considered as one of the greatest inventions of all time, in terms of how it could protect a nation, is it really worth having numerous amounts of governments on edge at the thought of a weapon so powerful? Ronald Reagan described nuclear weapons as: â€Å"Totally irrational, totally inhumane, good for nothing but killing, possibly leading to the destruction o f life on Earth and civilisation.† He spoke nothing but the truth. US President Reagan was a nuclear abolitionist. He believed that the only reason to have nuclear weaponry was to prevent the Soviet Union from using theirs. Between them alone the United States and Russia have more than 90% of the world’s nuclear weapons. Why do these countries feel the need to posses so many nuclear warheads? Dominance, power and paranoia. Although some of their weapons may simply just be left over from the Cold War, this is not an excuse. They could have easily been destroyed by now. Countries like Russia and the United States crave power. In modern times the most important substance to guarantee power is weapons. Countries in possession of nuclear weapons use them to scare and intimidate other nations. One day this could backfire and the consequences would be deadly. Take North Korea and America. When Kim-Jong Un tried to invade South Korea, Barack Obama threatened them with an atomic bomb. As soon as that was done North Korea knew they had a major diplomatic issue and rescinded their threat. A major threat to world peace is the potential issue that certain smaller countries are likely to rebel against being manipulated and not having the ability to retaliate. To ensure that they avoid being bullied by bigger powers they may start to produce their own nuclear warheads. As previously stated, the  reason two superpowers like Russia and the United States maintain a significant arsenal of nuclear weaponry is down to the fact that frankly, they are paranoid. If you can stockpile most of the nuclear warheads in the world then surely nobody could ever harm your country. This is certainly not the case. By having so many dangerous weapons you are not only a bigger threat to potential enemies but practically there is the additional threat that Terrorists could pose if they ever managed to secure or steal some of these weapons. Morally we should also be questioning the validity of nuclear weapons, if the leaders of a country say that it is ok to use an extreme sanction like nuclear weapons to threaten enemies then what’s to say that civilians do not do the same thing on a smaller scale? In the beginning of the atomic age atom bombs were created to end the war and to save numerous lives. By this I mean that arguably, multitudinous lives were saved due to the fact that when the bomb was dropped on Hiroshima the Japanese virtually surrendered straight away. If they hadn’t surrendered the war possibly would have gone on for a lot longer. In contrast to this, look at what has become of nuclear weapons now. Instead of saving lives, atomic bombs are now kept with the intention of unnecessary mass murder. What makes the monsters that enforce the use of nuclear weaponry any different from Adolf Hitler, Pol Pot or Joseph Stalin? Even though the atomic bombs are not in use at this moment, anyone or any g overnment in possession of these weapons have the intention to inflict large amounts of pain on vast number of people. Rajiv Gandhi said that the â€Å"nuclear war will not mean the death of one hundred million people. Or even a thousand million. It will mean the extinction of four thousand million: the end of life as we know it on planet earth.† The prospect of a nuclear war is just a horrendous thought, a thought that should never cross our minds. Recently, President Barack Obama and Prime Minister Dmitry Medvedev signed a treaty saying that both countries are willing to reduce their amount of nuclear weapons by one third. It is comforting to see that the US and Russia are starting to destroy their atomic bombs but it is not good enough. They need to stop reducing their arsenal of weapons and eliminate them completely. Opponents of this idea claim that owning arnaments like atomic bombs mutually assures governments that they both have the potential for ultimate destruction. But is that really a good or virtuous thing? People who appear to be psychopaths  run a number of countries. For instance take the ruler of Zimbabwe: Robert Mugabe. He is at the potentially senile age of 89. His mind is failing. Can you begin to comprehend what would happen if he got his hands on an atomic bomb? The result would be anarchy. Or take the ruler of Syria, President Assad. He has already murdered masses of people by chemical gas attack and has publicly stated that he would destroy the state of Israel. For rulers like these men to possess weapons with such a huge destructive potential is a simply ludicrous thought. If some unhinged individual were to drop an atomic bomb now it would result in retaliation and possibly the biggest global catastrophe this planet has ever seen. We need to think about the consequences. It is a statement of fact that the more of something being produced the easier it is to acquire. Yes, this can concern nuclear weapons also. When more nuclear warheads are being manufactured there is a bigger chance of them being stolen or worse being detonated. Therefore, there is a much larger risk of them falling into the wrong hands. According to the International Atomic Energy Agency, there have been 18 cases of loss but most likely theft of uranium and plutonium. These elements are key when constructing a bomb. To make matters worse, there have been 11 whole nuclear bombs lost in the United States. They have never been recovered. If agencies and governments are finding it hard to keep track of their materials now, think of how impossible it would be if every country had their own arsenal of nuclear weapons? If these lost bombs are in the hands of terrorists at present I can guarantee that they will currently be considering how best to us e them to maximise their effect. To conclude, the fact is that if every country were to have the right to possess nuclear weapons we would all be living in constant fear of attack. Our lives would be very different; we would be insecure with regards to our safety and this would impact greatly on how we lived our lives – we would need to be significantly more vigilant. A small example of this is the potential effect that liquid explosives has on air travel where we can’t take any fluids that are more than 100ml into an airport. That is just for liquid explosives, what limits would be required to ensure nuclear components weren’t being smuggled? If one country were to drop a bomb it would set off a chain reaction, all it would take is for one rogue state or  organisation to detonate a bomb and the world would effectively end through nuclear Armageddon. BIBLIOGRAPHY http://nonukes.org/cd18_sixarg.htm http://www.abolishnukes.com/short_essays/ten_reasons_krieger.html http://www.debate.org/opinions/should-nuclear-weapons-be-abolished http://debatewise.org/debates/144-eliminate-all-nuclear-weapons/

Delegation and Empowerment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Delegation and Empowerment - Essay Example When handled properly, delegating and empowering can enable the ordinary worker to excel to the limits of their competence. Because delegation is necessary for a manager to accomplish his job it is a vital component of a successful organization. Health care organizations are especially aided by delegation and are able to maximize the use of their limited human capital. Knowledge and information may reside in only a few key positions. By delegating authority, while remaining accountable, the manager can delegate key tasks to other qualified personnel. This is even more important where there may be a shortage of doctors or nurses. By utilizing all the workers to the maximum of their ability, the organizational structure is strengthened. Delegation is a formal process of planning, preparing, auditing, and feedback (Allen, 1998). The supervisor must communicate fully with the worker in regards to the expectations and time frames. The results of the delegation need to be monitored regularly and the worker needs to receive regular feedback or appreciation (Allen, 1998). Delegation empowers the worker with the authority of the supervisor. Empowerment can also come from a company culture that is not derived from delegation.

Forming at corporate University Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Forming at corporate University - Article Example In my opinion, I believe that the development of the corporate university will help solve a junk of the human resource issues. At the same time as the university keeps developing and capturing the needs of the staff members, there will be increased development in talent of the employees. The university provides opportunities to employees by developing the needed curriculum that soothes its employees (Hewitt-Dundas, 2013). Funds to put up the university and get it running are a big challenge to any institution. However from the study conducted on the feasibility of the project, it indicates that the whole project is viable and affordable. Therefore, there is a need to develop an institution for the development of the employees professionally and increased job satisfaction at the workplace. Employing the workers from within in the leadership posts, plays aggregate deal in seeing the organization grow. The growth can be attributed to the fact the employees have more experience on the operations of the institution. With additional leadership knowledge, there is double fold reproductively of the employee. At the same time, this acts a motivation to the organization employees which increases the productivity by working towards getting that chance to be trained and lead a particular department. Azagra-Caro, J. M., Archontakis, F., Gutià ©rrez-Gracia, A., & Fernà ¡ndez-de-Lucio, I. (2006). Faculty support for the objectives of university-industry relations versus degree of R&D cooperation: The importance of regional absorptive capacity. Research Policy, 35,

Effectiveness of Mentoring in Organizations Essay

Effectiveness of Mentoring in Organizations - Essay Example The performance of employees is dependent upon the degree of alignment achieved with the strategic business objectives which is measured effectively by innovative means in the modern organization. However, it is not easy for the younger talents to understand the detailed aspects of such alignments on their own whereas they bring to table some excellent competencies as an outcome of their respective educational backgrounds. Such talents require effective mentoring to help them align with the organizational goals such that they can gradually build a career in the system by effectively delivering results in line with the strategic objectives of the organization. The mentors need to be those senior experienced colleagues who have been star performers in the system by virtue of their recognized contribution to the goals of the organization. The mentor-protg relationships in organizations, however, are complex and require a lot of organizational focus (as a part of larger strategies) to en sure successful results in building talents for the future. There are numerous benefits to organizations that establish formal mentoring programs within the system and carefully managing the emotional dynamics between the mentors and the protgs by avoiding conflicts of interests. Some organizations practice such strategies for every level in the organization after recognising the need for such programs and clearly setting out their objectives. Such activities are normally carried out through Human Resources department having dedicated functional areas for training & development within the organization. Such a department possesses a senior management representative for effective communication to the top and also possesses their own quality goals in achieving people development in the system. The Human Resources function views the entire organization as a social system and tries to establish models of existing human dynamics prevailing within the organization. These dynamics are then mapped with the growth path that has been established within the organization as per the business requirements in order to build aspirations and healthy competition among people. The employees are then provided guidance and help through senior & experienced employees through well designed mentoring programmes such that every

Construction of identity Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Construction of identity - Essay Example In the period from 1950 to 1990, the unidimensionl identity of modern women ws replced by bidimensionl identity (Nicholson, 1997:380), phenomenon observed lso in other countries (Woodwrd, 1997:240). In generl, women's lbor force prticiption incresed drmticlly during the twentieth century, nd in recent yers, the continuity of women's creers hs lso risen. Mny women becoming mothers now hve greter occsion to develop nd vest themselves in nonfmilil identities thn did women in the pst. But mny of the culturl chnges tht hve ccompnied economic nd demogrphic chnges mke the question of how to live s n dult problemtic in new wys for such women. Prentl roles re no longer tken to define the mening of womn's dult life or of couple's reltionship. Current culturl rhetorics of individulism men tht, mong the middle clss, it is no longer pproprite for dults to scrifice themselves for their spouses or their children; insted the individul is offered culturl imges of self-reliztion nd of "finding one's self" s guides to identity nd the mening of life. Such chnges in the menings of womnhood nd motherhood, however, re contested. Kaplan (1984:112) points out tht conflict over the socil representtion of motherhood s optionl rther thn centrl in women's lives lies t the hert of the politicl debtes on bortion in the United Sttes. Tody Tody's motherhood is more complex nd diverse in mening. Kpln (1992) speks in this regrd of "postmodern" motherhood. The Mdonn imge--representing the scrificing mother-hs been supplemented with the Creer women imge (Kpln, 1992:115). ccording to Crmer (1997), young mothers re well wre of the conflict between trditionl nd modern models of mother hood. In the view of Hys (1996), mothers tody fce two socilly constructed imges, tht is, tht of the "trditionl" mother-who stys t home nd dedictes ll her energy to the fmily--nd tht of the successful "supermom": The ll-round mother who hs "briefcse" qulities. She not only mnges the household nd rises the children, but lso hs her own creer. With respect to the described chnges within society, it is of interest to investigte how tody's dolescent girls nd young women conceptulize motherhood. The trditionl imge is extended with modern imge of motherhood.The representtion of motherhood s primrily biologicl reltionship conceled the gendered politics of socil nd "nturl" reltions. In Western cultures, women's "embodied humnity," most clerly symboliclly expressed by their biologicl cpcity to mother, hs been used to exclude them from "true humnity"-to relegte them to sphere perceived to be outside history, society, nd reson: tht is, "to nture" (Woodwrd, 1997:242). Nture nd womn were both culturlly ssocited nd empiriclly devlued.Feminist nlyses, however, drw even deeper implictions from these culturl ssocitions nd dulisms. Ecofeminism, for exmple, exposes the wys in which gendered constructions of "humn" (msculine) nd "nonhumn" nture hve been embedded in the emergence of modern sciences nd the ssocited politicl-economic reltions of industriliztion nd coloniztion.Ptrirchl conceptions of womn nd nture, they rgue, re t the hert of destructive ecologicl prctices s well s of the oppressive gender, clss, nd rce reltions on which they re built (Kpln, 1992:115). Not surprisingly, mny contemporry feminists re rethinking motherhood. For the nlysis of motherhood, s Hys (1996) points out, hs the

Legality of Drone Strikes by US Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Legality of Drone Strikes by US - Research Paper Example This research will begin with the statement that the war on terror continues to bring about heated debates among most of the citizens of America, and in fact, the world. It is a wonder why the American government continues to preach for/ on a democratic front at home, and yet do the complete opposite when it comes to other nations, especially in the Middle East. The fact that America chooses to play big brother to nations that have problems of their own still remains a mystery. The wars America has been involved in over the last few decades have led to the loss of lives on both fronts  and has even led to the questioning of the financial strain the wars are causing. Recently, the U.S. has been called out by some of the many nations on the use of drones to target alleged Al-Qaeda territories. This has, however, not deterred the Obama administration from continuing their assaults on these foreign lands. The U.S. drone wars have affected regions such as Yemen and Pakistan, where the d eath of an unprecedented number of people has risen over the years. This has led to a public outcry, both at home and in the Middle East, as people are losing their lives over a war they feel is unwarranted. Al-Qaeda strongholds are the reasons for these attacks on the Middle East regions, where the Obama administration believes that they are responsible for rooting out the cause of all that is terror-related

BADM grad assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

BADM grad - Assignment Example This is carried out either by making a proposal or provision of other options. Certain tasks are then pressed down to corporate units where there is maximum experience. People with input tasks are later on requested to offer applicable information through efficient decisions based on evaluation of facts, instead of looking for judgment on management. RAPID decision-making model can be used to clarify process tasks and accountabilities the dedication to the point the organization takes action. Good transaction judgment provides a grasp on the trade-offs in accordance with the roles and tasks of all workers in the organization. Roles and responsibilities create an awareness of the group that will fulfill the decision of the organization. The RAPID model is best suited for decision-making teamwork, while the RACI model is best suited for implementation teams. The RAPID model will also focus more on the function of every member in the team while making the decision in order to entice the recruitment of more experienced people. The RACI model intentionally operates within execution plan to initiate numerous downstream decisions that surface frequently. Even though both decision-making models follow al principles concerning assigning of tasks and responsibilities, the high effect of the RAPID model calls for transparency around import ant decision-making roles for all individuals in the team. The IOPT model is a simple instrument that determines that style to be used when creating answers to a survey. The evaluation of the IOPT model involves four styles and patterns. The â€Å"Snowflake† graphic, transparencies, â€Å"your way† table and Chickenpox are the styles employed by the IOPT models. The â€Å"Snowflake† graphic are templates that recognize features linked to different planned patterns. The patterns have been designed to superimpose individual groups’ profiles. These

Pre-Columbian History of the Caribbean Indigenous People Essay Example for Free

Pre-Columbian History of the Caribbean Indigenous People Essay Both indigenous groups, Tainos and Siboneys migrated to the Caribbean region. The first indigenous group to migrate to the Caribbean was the Siboneys. Although their origin has been debated, the common perception is that they came from either the southern top of modern day Florida or Mexico. It is estimated that around 500 B. C. they settled in the Greater Antilles region of the Caribbean. This region includes the Bahamas, Cuba and Jamaica. The Taino migration occurred approximately around the same time as the Siboneys. Their migration started from the South American mainland, most notably the area between Venezuela and Colombia to the area known as the Lesser Antilles of the Caribbean. This area included islands such as Trinidad and the Virgin Islands. The Taino utilized canoes to travel between each island during their migration. The canoes were made out of tree trunks and measured approximately 25 meters in length. Each canoe had a travel capacity of approximately 50 people. The main reason for the Taino migration was increased agitation and threats from the Carib indigenous people from the same region in South America. The Caribs were fierce in the their pursuit of the Taino and followed them up into the Lesser Antilles. Culturally, both the Taino and Siboney differed greatly. The Siboneys communed in small societies. Some would argue that they were culturally unsophisticated. They did not make any complex tools, just wood, stone and shells. The Siboney’s also settled by the riverside since they did not practice any form of agriculture. Their diet consisted of easily attainable animals such as fish and reptiles. They also ate wild fruits that were native to the islands. Conversely, the Taino were more advanced than their northern neighbor the Siboneys. The Taino had a complex society that consisted of settlements of as much as 500 inhabitants. They also contained a social structure for each settlement that consisted of a chief known as a cacique, a tier of elders who represented various families of each settlement, women and children. The Taino designated tasks to its members according to their position. Men cleared uninhabited areas of land and fished. Women were in charge of crop cultivation and child rearing. Unlike the Siboneys, the Taino mastered the art of farming. They farmed various crops such as yucca, guava and sweet potatoes. They also hunted various small game around the islands. The Taino also mastered clay pottery. Lastly, the Taino exercised their religious beliefs regularly. They believed in Gods that they called Zemis. The Caicique’s job was to carry out religious ceremonies by nasally ingesting a hallucinogenic mixture of tobacco and crushed sea shells through a long pipe called a cohoba. This snuff allowed the caciques to communicate with their Gods. Unlike the Siboneys, the Taino were a highly advanced society. They played a sophisticated team game called â€Å"Batey†. This game can be considered as the precursor to modern day soccer. Specially designed ball courts were created for Batey. In addition, The Taino also created jewelry and ornaments in which both men and women wore to Festivals and other celebratory events. In conclusion, the Taino and Siboney indigenous people both migrated to the Caribbean region. They both make up the genealogical and cultural starting point for all individuals who hail from the Caribbean region.

Production Planning And Control System Commerce Essay

Production Planning And Control System Commerce Essay Businesses can be of different types. Some industries focus on providing the customers with different types of services. Some others concentrate on selling of products. Majority of ventures are in the business of manufacturing something or the other. To start with, you would need some basic raw materials to which you would add some value to make something else. Simply put, this is production. Therefore, we can say that production is a business process in which a raw material is converted into finished or semi-finished products, in the process adding value to the of utility of products. This production procedure is measured by calculating the difference between the value of what goes into the production and the value of what is produced in the end. The things which go into the making of things are called the inputs and what is produced in the end is called the outputs. Say for example, if you want to manufacture dresses you will need cloth, labor, and machines at the primary level. These are all inputs. The end product, that is the dress, is the output. What is meant by production? Production can be described as a process of manufacturing or producing goods for trading purpose. It is a method that uses the intangible inputs like creativity, ideas, knowledge, research and perception in action. With the help of these intangible inputs, the tangible inputs like the raw materials are converted into finished products and made ready to be sold in the market. Production Function In mathematics, a function determines the relation between a set of inputs and the set of outputs. Similarly production function is that kind of a function through which assumed specification is made by the industry or a firm about the output in relation to all the input which went into the project. Production function serves to cater to the customer needs and demands in a cost effective way. Therefore planning and carrying out the production function in an efficient way is of prime importance to obtain this objective. Production Management Managing anything has to include proper planning at the initial level. The same thing is applicable in case of production management. You start with planning about how the production procedure will take place. Then you organize it according to your needs or requirements only after which you can execute the plan, direct and control the production activities. Hence, we can say that production management is the managing process which deals with the conversion of raw materials to the finished products that too in an economical way. Production management is guided by 6 Ms- a) money, b) men, c) materials, d) machines, e) methods and f) markets. If the same concept is applied to the management of services then the subsequent management activities are termed as operation management. Definitions of Production Management Here are some common and widely accepted definitions of production management: Production management deals with decision-making related to production processes so that the resulting goods or service is produced according to specification, in amount and by the schedule demand and at minimum cost. Elwood Spencer Buffa Production management,  also called  operations management, deals with planning and control of industrial processes to ensure that they move smoothly at the required levelà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.In manufacturing operations, production management includes responsibility for product and process design, planning and control issues involving capacity and quality, and organization and supervision of the workforce. -Encyclopà ¦dia Britannica Hence, we can easily say that, production management is the conversion of production inputs into outputs which when distributed in the market will cater to meet the demands of consumers. History of Production and Operation Management Industrial Revolution For over two and half centuries, production and operation management has been regarded as one of the important factors responsible for the economic growth and development of any country. With the outbreak of the industrial revolution in England in the mid 1700s a havoc change was observed in the industrial sectors. The changes began to be observed when the stream engine was invented by James Watt in 1764. It largely replaced the man power in the factories. In the year 1776 Adam Smith published his revolutionary book, The Wealth of Nations, where he talked about the specialization of labors in manufacturing and the economic benefits it avails to an industry. Therefore, the factories of the late 18th century experienced not only the use of the power by the newly invented machines but also new means of planning and controlling a factory production. About the same time the concept of division of labors came into being. Rapidly the industrial revolution spread from England to the other parts of Europe and also to America. Further development was observed as an American named Eli Whitney came up with the concepts of interchangeable parts and cost accounting. Early 1800s saw the advent of electricity and gasoline engines which enhanced the industrial revolution to a great extent. During the post civil war period an increased rate of production capacity was recorded which on the other hand led to growth of the capital. A massive production explosion followed in the newly developed U.S. market. Scientific Management- The concepts of scientific management, work study and time study was introduced by Frederick Taylor. He talked of the shop system as well which brought the skill, strength and learning ability of the workers into question. The shop system was the first to initiate the idea of the incentive pay. Specification of materials, methods of work and routing systems were used to organize the shop. It was the Ford Motor Company who embodied the major facets like interchangeable parts, low manufacturing cost, mass production, and standardized designs of the product of scientific management in 1920s. The scientific management was popularized by Henry Ford, who used it in his firms. These approaches helped him in maximizing the production at the plant. Operational Research System- During the Second World War enormous resources were installed. Military operational research squads were formed to deal with the complications of the deployment. P.M. Blacker is regarded as one of the main contributors in the field of operational research application in the Second World War. The operational system brought to the fore front the positive aspects of the system which helped the operational manager to control the complexities of production. Service Revolution- The publication of the Hawthorne studies in the 1930s revealed that human factors are influencing the production process to a great extent. The study report said that the ambiences, sociological and psychological conditions of the worker are affecting the production. It was the behavioralists who talked about these factors which made the industrialists change the way of treating the factory workers. The idea of the labors responding positively to the attention thus paid to them came to be acknowledged as the Hawthorne effect. The change in the thought process and the introduction of this new philosophy had a tremendous impact on the production planning and control system of the factories. Studies showed that the due to the increased use of machineries work became monotonous to the workers which affected the rate of production. In order to resolve this problem the workers were conferred a greater role in the planning procedure of the whole production so that they c an find interest in their work. Computer Revolution- It was the 1930s which witnessed the advent of the computer age. There was an explosive growth in the communication technology. Gathering information became very easy as everyone had an effortless access to it. Advancement in the software technology made the people aware about the usage of e-mails. More and more plants took initiation in starting E- Business. A special computerized system known as the Material Requirement Planning was developed which proved to be very useful in managing the business. Where we stand now? Today the whole production or operational management wholly stands on the demands and needs of the customers and providing them with quality products. This is because the competition level in the market is very high and in order to build and maintain the image and reputation of a company, customer satisfaction is the absolutely necessary. Other factors which are influencing the operational management these days are the advancement of the technologies, competition in the world wide market, cost challenges etc. Why Production and Operation Management is required? Any firm or industry needs production management. To achieve all its objectives- Every firm or industry possesses certain objectives behind the projects they undertake. Production management enables the firm to fulfill all its objectives in time and at the same time fulfill the demands of the customer. To gain reputation as well as to build up a good image in the market- One of the main objectives of production management is to satisfy the consumers. Production management helps in achieving this goal. Aids other functional fields- Production management aids the functional field of the industry or firm. Other functional sphere includes finance, personnel and marketing. It will be easier for the marketing department to sell good quality goods which in turn helps the financial department to gain more finances due to the increase of the sale of the products. This will also enable the company to acquire loans for expanding the firm. Proper management of the production will also help the personnel sector to handle the human resources properly and increase the efficiency of the resource. Aids in promoting new products- Production management controls the research and development section of the firm. It enables to study the market and needs of the customer depending on which they can introduce newly manufactured goods in the market. Helps in coping up with the competition level in the market- Same products may be produced by other companies as well. Production management helps the firm to cope up with the competition level in the market by keeping the quality, price, quantity of the products as per needs of the consumers. Produce the goods in a cost effective way- Cost of production can be checked and reduced to a great extent through proper management of production. It tries to minimize the input keeping the output to the optimum level. Maximize the use of resources- Production management assists in maximization of the use of resources like machines, human resources etc. Helps the firm to grow- Production management helps the company to expand itself which in turn enables the firm to yield greater profit. Production management is important to the consumers because- Improves the standard of living of the people The research work that the production department carries out reveals the demands and needs of the consumers which the industries cater to fulfill. This increases as well as improves the standard of lining of the people as they get to use good and new products. Enhances the economy- Production management helps to produce goods in a cost effective way. This leads to the proper economic growth of the country. Decreases the problem of unemployment- Unemployment is a major problem of our country. The activities of the production department of any firm open up many job prospects for the people. Quality of the products increases- As mentioned earlier production management controls the research and development sector of a firm. These researches help to provide the customers with the better quality of the product. Provides the customers with low cost products- Production management facilitate the customers with low cost products so that the majority of the population can avail that product for use. What is a system? System as we understand comprises of various sects which works together as a unit. All the processes are interdependent and function as a whole. The system operates with a distinct intention to fulfill the predetermined objectives. Massive systems are often a compilation of various sub-systems. Production System In a broader sense production system is the framework which supports all kinds of production activities that may take place within an organization. The process of manufacturing involves the conversion of inputs into outputs. A suitable designing of production system makes sure the coordination of the different procedures which undergoes in the production. There is no hard and fast rule that only a single pattern of production system is to be followed universally and have to be applied to all kinds of productions. It differs from one project to another. Definition The methods which include all functions required to collect the inputs, process or reprocess the inputs and produce the saleable outputs. Ray Wild defines production or operation system as a configuration of resources combined for the provision of goods and services. Production system has three main components namely- inputs, conversion process and outputs. Inputs comprise of machines, man-power, capital, raw materials, drawings, paper works. Conversion process includes all kinds of processes and procedures which can be mechanical or manual or chemical. These operations are responsible for converting all the inputs into the desired outputs. This stage of production system also has some supporting operations like obtaining of raw materials, storing, production planning, product designing etc. Outputs comprise of the end products which the firm will provide it to the customers like services, finished goods etc. Production management.png A Systematic Diagram of Production System Types of Production System In general there are two types of production system. They are- Continuous Production- It is a process which is used to produce products without any hindrance in a continuous way. This type of production system is void of any interruption. Continuous production is often referred to as continuous flow process or continuous process. It is so named because the raw materials which go into making of the product are continuously moving and at the same time are exposed to chemicals or heat or cold as required in the making of the product. By continuous we mean running twenty four hours a day, seven days a week, with rare shutdown of the working force which can be quarterly, semi-annually or annually. Goods are manufactured on a massive scale in a continuous production. They are not produced depending on the customers orders. This system of production requires huge investment in machineries. This type of production system is found in oil refineries, power stations etc. Characteristics of Continuous Production Production is continuous. Large scale production of goods takes place. Does not depend on the customers orders. Standardized products are produced. Quality of the goods is predetermined. Types of Continuous Production System Mass production flows-Here same kind of product is manufactured to fulfill the demand of the market. This system needs good planning for material, process, maintenance of machines and instruction to operators. Process production flows- The distinction between mass and process production is the kind of product a firm produces. Mass production manufactures the same products and is produced in a large scale. If the demand ceases, the machineries are used for manufacturing products of similar nature after slight modification. In process production, the plant and equipment is designed for a specific product. Hence if the demand falls for the product or ceases, the firm cannot be used for manufacturing other products. Intermittent Production System Unlike continuous production system intermittent production system as the name suggests is such a system where goods are produced on the basis on customers orders. Usually the goods are produced in a small scale. The production flow is not constant. Various types of products of various sizes are produced in this type of system. The system is very plastic. Ex- Production found in automobile plants, electric goods plants. Characteristics of Intermittent Production System Production is not continuous. Halts are made frequently. Various kinds of goods are produced. Machines used for general purpose is used. Production depends on the order of the clients. The level of production is usually small. Types of intermittent production system Project Production Flows- Here a firm accepts a single complex contract or order. The project has a deadline within which the contract has to be finished that too within an approximate calculated cost. Project production flows include projects like building a high rise, constructing a dam or an airport. Resource requirements are high at the beginning of the project but ultimately ceases as the project nears its end. Job Production Flows- Items are manufactured only on the basis of specifications made by the customers. The cost is determined at the time of signing the project. Highly skilled labors are required in job production flows. Ex- Services the tailoring shops, repairing stores provide. Batch Production Flows- The production schedule is decided before commencing on the project. It depends on the estimate of consumers demands or upon the specific customers orders. The manufacturing process of the product is divided into a number of batches sequentially. Each batch is to be completed first to start with the next. A detailed production planning is required in batch production flows. Ex. Manufacturing of drugs. Factors Influencing Production Process Supplies The production or manufacturing process largely depends on the supplies of raw materials. If the supply of materials is hampered due to problems like transportation or bad weather, the fixed target cannot be achieved within the promised time. On the contrary if there is a smooth supply of materials then the flow of production will be normal and the production schedule can be easily followed. Power Supply- For running any plant, supply of incessant power is required. Even if the power supply is gets disrupted temporarily can have a great impact on the production process. Machineries and Equipments- A sudden shut down of any of the machineries of the equipments used in the production of product can lead to minimization of the production rate. Continual operations of the equipments are necessary in order to improve the efficiency of the machines. Man Power- The labors directly associated with the manufacturing process can influence the production in many ways. For example, sick leaves and vacations taken by key workers have a negative impact on manufacturing. Capacity of the plant is also influences the production procedure of a firm. The larger the firm, the larger will be the production, all the other factors remaining constant. Flexibility- The production process should be elastic in order to adapt to the changes that take place during the production process. Product Design Designing a product by a firm includes a strategic procedure of planning to create a new product to be sold to the customers. The product design is one of the most crucial and sensitive aspect for an organization. Success or failure of the sale of the product depends on a number of factors which ultimately decides the reputation and image of the company in the market. So during the designing period of the product there are a number of things which need to be paid heeded to. Everything is analyzed while designing a product right from what the general public likes to the cost and the process which undergoes in making the product. Production Planning and Control (PPC) The main aim of any manufacturing plant is to produce the products. Therefore the production is the core of the entire business operations. It is the driving force to which all the other functions of the plant depend. Once the industrialist has taken the decision about the product design, the next step he takes is planning the production and chalk out the controlling process. This is very much important for the economical aspect of the project. PPC is absolutely necessary for the small scale industries. A question may arise that why controlling of the manufacturing process is required. Well production planning without production control is like a school without the Headmaster. Planed decisions when put to action can go wrong, but checking the damage due to the mishap is production control. Objectives of Production Planning and Control a) To determine the ability of all producing sectors b) To plan the manufacturing activities in a systematic order depending on the sales demand of the market c) To endorse the fullest utilization of the firm d) To train labors for effective performance e) To ensure means of finding out the manufacturing needs and requirements so that the materials needed for the production can be attained at right time in the right quality as well as quantity f) To maintain coordination between the various sectors of the production process. Stages of Production Planning and Control The following tree will show you what the stages of PPC are PPC.png Production Planning and Control Process Production Planning It is a practice of foreseeing the stages of production process before commencing on a distinct project and also to judge the efficiency level of all those stages through which the maximum profit of the industry can be brought about at the scheduled time. It enables the entrepreneur to estimate the quantity of raw materials, money and labors to be needed for the production. Routing It helps in determining the course and progression of the production activities of a plant. The machines which will be required for the operations and the executives to be engaged for the work are determined in the routing stage. The main intention of routing is arrange the production procedure in a cost effective manner. It also makes sure that the decided sequential arrangement is followed firmly. The discussion about the quality and estimation of the cost of the product to be produced is also done in the routing stage. Scheduling Scheduling means determining the approximate time to be taken by each production activity and also all the operations taken together. It highly differs from one job to the other. Time is the main factor which is worked upon at this stage of production planning. Loading Here the schedule planned in the previous step is put into practice. Loading therefore decides who will be given the responsibility to do the work at hand. It helps in judging the existing work load and also to predict how early the remaining work can be finished. Production Control As mentioned earlier every production process must be controlled to keep the process running smoothly and fulfill the production of the products within the specified time. The production control department can perform effectively only when the financial manager, personnel manager, work manager and purchase manager works together in case of small scale industry. Dispatching To start a production process an authorization is required which is done in this stage. From the movement of materials to the different work stations, keeping a track of the cost occurred in each operation of the production, inspection of the activities are all looked after in the dispatching stage of the production control. This step is very significant because it converts the production plan into action. Follow Up Follow up, also regarded as reporting, is that stage of production control where the follies of the production plan or in the schedule structure of the operations are recorded. The main objective behind the follow up stage is to make sure all the decided plans and programs are been followed. It finds out whether there is any deviation from the production plan or not. And if there is any, immediate action is taken to resolve the fault and finish the production within the scheduled time. Inspection This stage is concerned about checking the quality of the finished goods because it is the most vital factor as the image, the name and the reputation of the company in the market depends on it Corrective Measures Corrective measures involve all those activities which are done to rectify the faults which may have occurred in the routing, scheduling, loading scheduling or in any of the stages of the production planning or control system. Decisions regarding the inclusion of more labors, transfer of personnel to other work stations, training of the employees are also taken in the corrective stage. Conclusion From the above discussion one thing can be easily understood that without efficient planning and control no business company can fulfill its objective of earning a profit. Production planning and control becomes very much crucial for the small scale industries because they frequently face the challenge of producing goods at a very low cost. Production planning not only aids the companies to determine the convenient production procedure they need to follow but also reveals the risk factors which they are likely to face during the manufacturing process.